Bone's Beef: Why China Experiment Is Worth Effort

Abstract

Kadaknath, the only black chicken indigenous to India, faces the threat of extinction due to declining numbers. Its meat is used in tribal medicine for invigorating and health-promoting properties. Expectations of immune-boosting and therapeutic properties in its meat are creating a buzz these days. Thus, Kadaknath meat was explored and farther compared with the commercial Cobb 400 broiler (Cobb) for the functional traits that might exist contributing towards proclaimed pharmacological benefits. Birds (n = 20/ group) were raised under similar management conditions and the ii primal craven meat cuts (breast and thigh) were nerveless at the marketing historic period. Kadaknath meat was constitute to be an enriched source of functional biomolecules (carnosine, anserine, creatine). Its chest meat carnosine content was more double of the Cobb broiler, half-dozen.10 ± 0.13 and 2.73 ± 0.1 mg/ chiliad of wet tissue, respectively. Similarly, the thigh meat of Kadaknath was a significantly (P < 0.05) richer source of carnosine. The genetic background was a key determinant for muscle carnosine content as a significant affluence of CARNS1 and SLC36A1 expression was identified in the Kadaknath breast. The superior functional property of Kadaknath meat was established past the antioxidant capacity established past the Oxygen radical absorbance capacity analysis and a stronger ability to inhibit the formation of avant-garde glycation end products (AGEs). The identification of fairly unknown nutritional and functional advantages of Kadaknath meat could potentially alter the paradigm with its meat consumption. It will aid in developing a brand name for Kadaknath products that volition propel an increment in its market share and ultimately conservation of this unique but endangered poultry germplasm.

Introduction

Good for you eating is being emphasized amid the Corona pandemic crisis for boosting natural immunity¹. Several nutrients accept health-promoting effects that take clinical utility in preventing or managing COVID-19 (due east.g. vitamins B, C, and D) and several others are attracting attention for their potential use, such as histidine-containing dipeptides (HCDs)^2,3. Knowledge nigh the numerous ergogenic and therapeutic properties of HCDs-carnosine (N-β-alanyl-l-histidine) and anserine (N-β-alanyl-i-methyl-l-histidine), is widespread in the scientific literature^4,5. These can counteract the evolution of several chronic diseases due to their role as antioxidants, antiglycation, and anti-inflammatory agents^{half dozen}. Dietary intake of HCDs promotes the immunological defense of humans confronting infections by bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses (including corona virus) by enhancing the metabolism and functions of monocytes, macrophages, and other cells of the immune system^vii. Carnosine, anserine, and creatine take been considered bioactive compounds for human consumption due to the crucial function performed in shielding the mammalian cells from oxidative damage⁸. These are copiously institute in meat and are absent-minded in vegetarian foods⁹. Poultry meat has the highest total HCD content among the subcontract creature species^10,eleven. Consequently, craven meat has the highest antioxidant capacity in comparing to pork, beefiness, and fish^12,13. Poultry meat is a good source of natural dipeptide carnosine a nutritional supplement that could better some of the damaging effects of SARS-CoV-2 infectionⁱ. It has been established to accept a potential role in the treatment of mice infected with swine flu H9N2 and inhibition of Zika and dengue virus infection besides as replication in human liver cells¹⁴. Lopachev et al.^fifteen proposed salicyl-carnosine as a promising candidate drug for the handling of patients with severe cases of COVID-19 infection.

Variation in the HCD content has been reported among different chicken genotypes¹⁶. Black meat of Chinese Silky fowl that is used in traditional Chinese medicine had a higher carnosine level than the commercial broiler (White Plymouth Rock) and five other poultry breeds^17,18. All-black chicken breeds include Silkie in Red china, Ayam cemani in Republic of indonesia, and Kadaknath in India. The autochthonous Kadaknath is the simply blackness meat chicken breed (Accession No. INDIA_CHICKEN_1000_KADAKNATH_12009) among the nineteen chicken breeds registered in India (https://nbagr.icar.gov.in/en/home/)¹⁹. The tribal community of Bhil and Bhilala are the main custodian of this unique backyard poultry. It is the only indigenous creature genetic resource in Bharat to get the Geographical Indication (GI) tag for the protein-rich and black-colored meat in 2018 (https://ipindia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/IPOJournal/1_2598_1/Journal_104.pdf). The peculiarity of this brood is that the entire bird and its internal organs are blackness (Fig. 1) due to the deposition of melanin pigment, a genetic condition called "Fibromelanosis"^xix. Information technology is supposed to accept aphrodisiac and medicinal properties and is used in the handling of many human diseases^20,21. Consequently, it holds a special place in the livelihood of the tribal populations²². Withal, its population is rapidly declining due to the lower production potential and hence it is under the threat of extinction also as genetic erosion.

Commercialization of intensive broiler craven product across the globe is resulting in decreased poultry genetic diversity around the world²³. This trend is particularly damaging to backyard modest-scale poultry rearing that supports food and nutritional security and poverty consolation in developing countries including India²⁴. Currently, the focus has shifted to healthy and natural foods that resulted in a renewed interest in native chickens²⁵. The demand for black meat of Kadaknath has increased amidst the ongoing Corona pandemic due to the expectations of the improved immunity status of human beings (https://icar.org.in/node/8075). Simply, there is a paucity of literature that can endorse the claims of nutritional and medicinal properties of Kadaknath meat. Scientific knowledge on the nutritional constituents that contributes towards the functional characteristics of its meat can impart a brand proper name to this unique poultry. It volition open the door for exploiting the market potential of consumers interested in nutritional and therapeutic quality, environmental sustainability, and animal welfare, which in turn, will also support Kadaknath breed conservation.

Hence, the present study was aimed to determine and compare the HCDs (carnosine and anserine) concentration, expression of related enzymes and transporters as well as the antioxidative and antiglycation potential of the Kadaknath chicken meat (chest and thigh) with the commercial Cobb 400 broiler (Cobb). It was hypothesized that the Kadaknath chicken meat has an border over the commercial broiler meat for the targeted nutritional properties.

Results

The possible supremacy of Kadaknath chicken over the commercial Cobb broiler was explored based on the concentration of carnosine and its related physiological activity in the meat. Breast and thigh meat as a typical representative of the white and carmine muscles were as well compared amidst the two groups of craven.

Kadaknath meat is enriched in carnosine

The concentration of selected functional molecules; HCDs (carnosine and anserine) was determined using the HPLC. In addition, another functional molecule creatine [North-(aminoiminomethyl)-Northward-methyl-glycine], that plays a vital role in the energy metabolism of skeletal muscle was estimated simultaneously. A standard curve of varying concentrations was prepared for pure carnosine, anserine, and creatine for the adding of respective components in the meat samples (Fig. 2a). The R^two obtained for the regression line was 0.998. All iii metabolites were separated within eight min and a typical chromatogram is presented in Fig. 2b.

A considerable amount of all the iii targeted molecules were detected in the chest and thigh meat extracts (Table 1). Carnosine content was significantly different between the Kadaknath and Cobb groups too equally amidst the 2 types of meat cuts; breast and thigh. The boilerplate carnosine concentration (mg/thou of tissue) in Kadaknath breast (half-dozen.10 ± 0.13) and thigh (i.71 ± 0.10) was more or less twice the respective values in Cobb broiler. Breast tissue has a college carnosine concentration than the thigh and the difference was more than twofold in the Cobb broiler and more than threefold in the Kadaknath. Similarly, anserine concentration was significantly higher in the breast tissue every bit compared to the thigh tissue of Kadaknath as well as, the Cobb broiler. However, different carnosine, the concentration of anserine among the two poultry groups did not differ significantly. Anserine was the major HCD in the meat of Cobb broiler (4.85 ± 0.22 vs 2.73 ± 0.10 carnosine, mg/ g of tissue), whereas carnosine content (6.10 ± 0.xiii) was college than the anserine (5.0 ± 0.14) in the Kadaknath chicken. A similar concentration of creatine was quantified across the ii poultry groups, irrespective of the blazon of tissue (Tabular array ane). However, among the breast and thigh meat, the breast meat had higher HCD concentrations.

Table 1 Histidine containing dipeptides (HCDs), and creatine concentration in the chicken meat.

Total size table

Expression of the carnosine-related genes

The expression of genes for the transporters and enzymes involved in the muscle cell homeostasis of carnosine was investigated. These included carnosine metabolism-related enzymes; Carnosine synthase1 (CARNS1), Carnosine dipeptidase (CNDP1 and CNDP2), and transporters; solute carrier family half dozen, fellow member 6 (SLC6A6), solute carrier family vi, fellow member 14 (SLC6A14) and solute carrier family 36, member 1 (SLC36A1). Kadaknath and Cobb broiler were compared using the chest meat due to the better carnosine concentration (Table 1). The molecular ground of difference in the breast and thigh meat was elucidated using the carnosine enriched Kadaknath meat.

Preliminary qRT-PCR assays were performed for the half dozen selected genes and it was observed that CARNS1, CNDP2, SLC6A6, SLC36A1 genes were expressed in both the chest and thigh tissues. However, CNDP1 and SLC6A14 genes did not show any expression at the limits of detection for employed qRT-PCR.

Comparative cistron expression profile of Kadaknath and Cobb breast meat (Fig. 3a) revealed that mRNA abundance of CARNS1 was higher (P < 0.001) in the Kadaknath as compared to the Cobb broiler. Whereas, a significant deviation was non observed among the ii groups for the transcripts of CNDP2. The β-alanine transporter genes SLC6A6, besides as SLC36A1, were also differentially expressed. The mRNA abundance of SLC36A1 was higher (P < 0.001) and that of the SLC6A6 gene was lower (P < 0.05) in the Kadaknath breast as compared to the Cobb broiler. However, the magnitude of difference for an increase in SLC36A1 (fold alter) outnumbered the subtract of SLC6A6 expression in the Kadaknath meat. Collectively, Kadaknath breast tissue has a several-fold higher expression for both the enzyme (CARNS1) and transporter (SLC36A1) contributing towards the enhanced synthesis of carnosine than the Cobb broiler.

Comparative expression of carnosine-related genes in the chest and thigh meat indicates that the breast has several-fold higher expression of enzymes and transporter (SLC36A1, CARNS1, CNDP2) that drive increased carnosine accumulation (Fig. 3b). Similarly, the expression of CNDP2 was also significantly higher in the chest. The difference observed in the transcript affluence among the two types of meats was in understanding with the results obtained for carnosine concentration in breast and thigh tissues (Tabular array 1).

Functional properties of meat

Antioxidative capacity gives a valuable indication of the functional holding of meat. Thus, the full antioxidant chapters was evaluated using an Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) analysis for a comparison between Kadaknath and Cobb meat antioxidant capacities. This method uses an area-nether-curve (AUC) technique and thus combines both inhibition time and inhibition degree of costless radical activeness by an antioxidant. Results (Fig. 4) showed the higher antioxidant chapters of Kadaknath breast and thigh meat over that of the Cobb broiler. The Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) of Kadaknath chest and thigh meat was calculated to exist 804.01 ± 9.37 and 810.8 ± 6.29 (µM Trolox equivalent (TE)/g of tissue), respectively while corresponding values were 748.56 ± 7.48 and 762.82 ± 9.19 (µM Trolox equivalent (TE)/ k of tissue), in the meat of Cobb broiler. At that place was no pregnant difference amidst the chest and thigh tissue of the same genetic grouping.

A comparative study between Kadaknath and Cobb broiler was accomplished to evaluate the ability of their meat extract to inhibit the formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs). To mensurate the antiglycation ability, the bovine serum albumin–methylglyoxal (BSA-MGO) system was used every bit the marker of the middle stage of the formation of oxidative cleavage products. Kadaknath and Cobb broiler meat extracts were able to inhibit the formation of fluorescent AGEs in the BSA-MGO model (Fig. 5). Kadaknath breast meat presented a amend anti-glycation potential (72.89 ± 0.81% AGEs inhibition) compared to the Cobb broiler (63.43 ± 0.89% AGEs inhibition). Similarly, thigh meat extract of Kadaknath and Cobb broiler inhibited fluorescent AGEs generation by 71.25 ± ane.21% and 63.91 ± 0.98%, respectively. There was no pregnant difference among the breast and thigh tissue of the same grouping. The antiglycation action of Kadaknath meat was like to that of pure carnosine (72.57 ± 0.32% AGEs inhibition).

Discussion

Carnosine concentration in Cobb broiler meat (Tabular array 1) corroborated with the previously described values in the broiler meat. Maikhunthod and Intarapichet²⁶ reported carnosine levels of 2.ix mg/g for broiler chicken breast muscle and 0.49 mg/thousand for the thigh, and Mori et al.²⁷ reported carnosine concentration of 2.55 ± 0.26 mg/one thousand for craven breast and 1.06 ± 0.18 mg/chiliad for the thigh meat. Korean native craven (KNC) carnosine concentration was besides of like magnitude^16,28. On the other hand, carnosine concentration in both the breast and the thigh meat of Kadaknath was approximately twice the Cobb broiler (Table i). Similarly, black chicken of China, Silky fowl (SF) had 1.7- to i.9-fold higher carnosine in comparison to the four chicken varieties, Nagoya Breed (NB), Japanese Game Cross (JG), Hinai-jidori (HJ), and commercial broiler¹⁸. SF breast meat had a carnosine concentration of vii.98 ± 0.86 mg/g meat, that was highest in comparison to the other varieties, JG (iv.55 ± 0.37 mg/thou), HJ (4.41 ± 0.v mg/k), and NB (4.79 ± 0.24 mg/g). Similarly, maximum thigh meat carnosine (2.88 mg/m) was quantified in the SF black chicken¹⁸. Concurrent to present findings, SF thigh meat had 1.6- to 2.3 fold higher carnosine levels. Previously, Tian et al.¹⁷, reported remarkably higher carnosine in the SF mixed meat, chest meat, and thigh meat in comparing to the White Plymouth Rock, bred under the same status.

Anserine is the main HCD in the meat of poultry and salmonid fishes, whereas carnosine is the principal HCD in pork and beef^xiii,28. Their ratio varies according to the species of animal and type of muscle²⁹. Anserine concentration in the meat of chicken and rabbit was more than than twice the carnosine concentration¹⁰. This trend was also followed in the native chicken of Korea and was not affected either by the age of the chicken, the blazon of meat, or the status of the meat¹⁶. Similarly, anserine is the major HCD in skeletal muscles of commercial broilers¹⁸, including Ross 308³⁰ and the same was the example with the Cobb broiler in the present study (Table 1). Surprisingly, this trend was not observed in the Kadaknath breast meat equally it had college carnosine content (6.10 ± 0.13 mg/ k of tissue) than the anserine (5.0 ± 0.14 mg/ g of tissue). The only other study on a college carnosine rather than the anserine in breast meat originates from the SF¹⁸. Thus, a predominance of carnosine instead of anserine tin can be considered a noteworthy characteristic of black craven meat. Among the ii types of meat cuts, anserine concentration was significantly higher in the breast tissue of both the craven groups (Table i). Higher anserine concentration in the chicken breast meat equally compared to the thigh has been reported for broiler, KNC, and black SF chicken^16,xviii.

Many factors may affect the carnosine concentration in meat similar genetic factors, rearing conditions, blazon of muscle fiber, gender, age, etc.^v. Therefore, direction conditions were kept identical, only male birds were selected, and sample collection, processing, and analysis were done simultaneously to minimize the variables. Birds were selected for comparison at their market age (Cobb broilers—8 weeks, Kadaknath—20 weeks) to compare the quality of meat that is consumed. Hence, Kadaknath meat was potentially matured as compared to Cobb. However, age may non be the reason for better HCDs in the Kadaknath as it has earlier been reported that the carnosine and anserine content of the breast and thigh meat (raw or cooked) did non increment significantly with the age of KNC^sixteen. Similarly, Jung et al.²⁸ did not find any correlation betwixt the body weight and content of anserine in the meat of five dissimilar lines of KNC. Moreover, the corporeality of type IIb fibers remained unchanged amid fast-growing and slow-growing chicken types³¹. Consequently, it tin be contemplated that the better carnosine in the Kadaknath meat may stand for to some specific important physiological role in its muscles. For case, animals that demand to escape from predators such as greyhound dogs have a higher pct of fast-twitch glycolytic fibers and hence demand more HCDs for efficient buffering³². The same may be true for the Kadaknath, a free-range bird in need of protection from predators. The Kadaknath chicken has a slower growth rate that might be reducing the demand for amino acids required for synthesizing poly peptide in tissues. Equally a event, dietary amino acids may be spared for synthesizing not-proteinogenic biological compounds such as HCDs. In both the chicken groups carnosine and anserine were more double in the breast than the thigh (Table 1), indicating that the HCDs concentration was affected by the muscle allocation. Characteristics of muscle fiber were non evaluated in the current report merely recently, a three-fold higher concentration of HCDs in the breast compared to the thigh muscles of Ross birds was allocated to the myofiber allocation³⁰. Published literature also supports college HCDs in the chicken breast muscle than the thigh musculus^26,29,xxx,33. Similarly, breast meat had a meliorate creatine concentration than thigh meat (Table one). Creatine and creatine phosphate plays an imperative role in the energy metabolism of muscle and supply the energy obligatory for the forceful muscle contraction³⁴. Phosphocreatine is a prerequisite for instant ATP regeneration and correlates with the higher level of creatine in glycolytic muscles of the breast^34,35.

Breast and thigh muscles tin can be considered as typical representatives of white and red muscles. A higher concentration of carnosine has been found in the white muscle rather than the tissue having an affluence of red muscle³⁶. The fast-twitch blazon IIb (glycolytic) fiber predominate the chicken breast, whereas the thigh is mostly composed of type I oxidative fiber²⁶. Type IIb fibers in the breast muscles are involved in short bursts of muscular activeness requiring fast wrinkle. Moreover, restrictive oxygen supply exists due to the low myoglobin and limited capillary network²⁸. Thus, ATP is generated through anaerobic fermentation of glucose to lactic acid via the glycolytic pathway and results in an acidic environment within the cell³¹. This may be the reason for the need for a higher quantity of dipeptides to deed equally a physio-chemical buffer against protons^37,38. Whereas, type I fibers contract slowly and are highly resistant to fatigue²⁶. They accept a better capillary supply, have loftier myoglobin content, and thus perform aerobic metabolism. This may elucidate the reason for lower priority for thigh HCDs synthesis in comparison to muscles of the chest.

Expression of transporters and enzymes related to the carnosine aggregating explained the molecular ground for the increased carnosine build-up in the Kadaknath black meat. Everaert et al.³⁹ also proposed that variation in the carnosine concentration amidst craven breeds may exist due to genotypic differences. Synthesis and hydrolysis are the main pathways involved in carnosine metabolism, from and to its constituent amino acids, respectively^twoscore. CARNS1 is characterized as an ATP-dependent cytosolic enzyme, which catalyzes the carnosine synthesis from amino acids β-alanine and L-histidine⁵. It is mostly expressed in skeletal muscles²⁷, some regions of the brain such equally the olfactory bulb, and in the heart⁴². Carnosine is hydrolyzed in tissues including skeletal muscles by a cytosolic Zn²⁺-dependent carnosinase-two (CNDP2) enzyme. Expression of CARNS1 was higher in the Kadaknath meat as compared to the Cobb broiler (P < 0.001). Concurrent to the present report, CARNS1 and CNDP2 have been reported in the skeletal muscle of humans, pigs, and mice⁴¹. Our results were in agreement with previous reports in the pig skeletal muscles where CARNS1 cistron expression and transcripts corresponded to the muscle carnosine content⁴¹. β-alanine is thought to be the charge per unit-limiting precursor of carnosine synthesis in humans and horses⁴². Expression of SLC6A6, besides as SLC36A1, has been reported in mouse, hog, and human skeletal muscles^41,43. SLC6A6 transporter is a Na⁺ and Cl⁻ coupled transporter that can transfer both taurine and β-alanine⁴³. The SLC36A1 gene corresponds to a high-capacity, low-affinity transporter for various amino acids including taurine and β-alanine. If the SLC6A6 gets saturated in the tissues then the SLC36A1 might permit the mass substrate transfer⁴⁴. Thus, several-fold higher expression of SLC36A1 in the Kadaknath compared to the Cobb broiler may account for the availability of abundant β-alanine within the muscle cells. Collectively, Kadaknath chest tissue has several-fold college expression than the Cobb broiler for both the enzyme (CARNS1) and transporter (SLC36A1) that may exist driving the enhanced carnosine synthesis.

A higher concentration of carnosine in the breast meat as compared to the thigh meat was also in line with the expression profile of related genes (Fig. 3). Although the expression of CNDP2 was also higher in the breast, the effect was offset by the much college magnitude of the CARNS1 and SLC36A1 expression. Moreover, deposition by the corresponding carnosinase-2 is very limited in the muscle cell due to the lower pH (7.one) than the optimal pH (9.5) of this enzyme⁴⁵. Literature is naïve in explaining the molecular ground of carnosine differences across the two types of chicken muscles. Limited information exists for other species. D'Astous-Folio et al.⁴¹ observed the highest value of mRNA transcript of CARNS1 in squealer breast muscle (longissimus thoracis) as compared to duodenum, kidney, lung, and backfat. Similarly, the maximum mRNA levels were reported in the human being glycolytic muscles (gastrocnemius and tibialis anterior) than that in the oxidative muscles of the center (soleus)⁴².

The absence of CNDP1 and SLC6A14 genes expression in the present written report was not surprising. The lack of transcript for CNDP1 was justifiable as this peptidase was acknowledged to be the carnosinase of serum that is expressed primarily in the rodent kidney, human brain tissues, and liver^41,46. CNDP1 was undetectable in muscles of the mouse (tibialis anterior), homo (gastrocnemius), and pig (longissimus thoracis)^36,39. Similarly, β-alanine transporter SLC6A14 was non expressed in human (gastrocnemius) and mouse (tibialis anterior) skeletal muscle³⁹. Recently, Qi et al.⁴³ reported that the CNDP1 and SLC6A14 were not detected in the chicken breast musculus, parallel to our observations.

Endogenous antioxidant systems comprise non-enzymatic lipophilic and hydrophilic compounds including HCDs to counteract the activeness of pro-oxidants in muscle tissues⁴⁷. Higher carnosine in the Kadaknath meat prompted us to farther explore the physiological backdrop in its meat as carnosine exhibits a dynamic listing of health benefits due to its antioxidant, metal chelating, and anti-glycation abilities⁴⁰. Complex composition and the presence of various antioxidants in heterogeneous foods such every bit meat make it difficult to decipher the office of each antioxidant. Hence, different in vitro assays have been introduced to screen their overall antioxidant activeness^48,49. These tests involve unlike chemical mechanisms and may accost different aspect(s) of antioxidant backdrop. A recent publication Sehrawat et al.⁵⁰ reported the superior antioxidant chapters of Kadaknath meat in comparison to the Cobb broiler based on gratis radical scavenging assays that involved single electron transfer (ET) reactions. As complementary assays provide more conclusive information on the antioxidant properties for a given sample the ORAC, a classic and new tool for measuring the antioxidant capacity of biomolecules using the hydrogen atom transfer (HAT)⁵¹ method was included (Table 2).

Tabular array 2 Antioxidant chapters of craven meat estimated by Oxygen radical absorbance chapters (ORAC) and other in vitro assays.

Full size table

The total antioxidant activity identified by 6 in vitro methods showed Kadaknath chicken meat to exist a improve source of dietary antioxidants. The only other report of meliorate HCDs, as well as, antioxidant activity of the nighttime craven meat in comparison to dissimilar chicken breeds comes from the SF¹⁸. Therefore the black chicken meat can be valued as a meliorate dietary source of natural antioxidants. Antioxidants are indispensable in the human body and food systems every bit they play a critical role in reducing oxidative processes and harmful effects of reactive oxygen species⁵². This significant ascertainment gains importance because chicken meat otherwise also is a better dietary source of natural antioxidants including HCDs than pork, fish, and goat meat¹². Craven meat is sensitive to oxidative changes, which negatively influence taste, olfactory property, and meat preservation. Therefore, the greater antioxidant potential of black chicken meat has health benefits forth with better oxidative stability of the meat.

A high concentration of advanced glycation finish-products (AGEs) tin initiate actions in the human body that lead to various disorders and their associated complications, such as Alzheimer's illness, atherosclerosis, diabetes, kidney affliction, and chronic heart failure^53,54. It has been shown that extracts from some plants and animals, tin can inhibit the formation of AGEs through their potent antioxidant properties⁵⁵. The comparative study between Kadaknath and Cobb broiler noted a positive influence of their meat extracts on the inhibition of AGEs, and the Kadaknath meat was a better antiglycation amanuensis (Fig. 5). The high antiglycation potential of Kadaknath meat extract was probable to be related to the presence of additional carnosine, a very good inhibitor of AGEs formation both in vivo^56,57 and in vitro⁵⁸. Carnosine may react direct with methylglyoxal and sequester it or its amino group and the imidazole ring may demark to reactive dicarbonyl groups⁵⁹ or proteins may become "carnosinylated" at carbonyl groups, and that these may protect them from deposition and/ or crosslinking.

Meat is a source of several functional molecules considered to exist vital from a nutritional perspective and having pregnant physiological significance including the HCDs (carnosine and anserine), and amino acids metabolite- creatine⁵. These functional molecules as well as the building block amino acids of HCDs (histidine and β-alanine) are defective in plants^ix. Thus, meat is the only current food-based means to provide them in the human diet. Availability of these three bioactive molecules through nutrition is possible due to their good stability during processing (cooking, fermentation, and drying) and storage³². Moreover, at the physiological range of pH values, carnosine, anserine, and creatine are h2o-soluble and chemically stable. In humans, skeletal muscle carnosine content has already been shown to increase by the availability of carnosine, either by dietary or supplementary sources⁶⁰. Published reports on the crucial roles performed by HCDs on human health and diet are gradually increasing^5,61. The advantages of taking HCDs accept been principally emphasized in the old-aged humans as the content of carnosine and overall mass of skeletal muscle decrease with historic period³⁶. Athletes unremarkably supplement their diet with carnosine to enhance performanceⁱ. Sufficient creatine in the diet is specifically emphasized for vegetarian athletes if they have fewer intakes of both creatine and its precursors (methionine, arginine, and glycine)⁶¹. Poultry has the higher content of full HCDs among farm fauna species (turkey > craven > horse > squealer > rabbit > beefiness). Results suggest that Kadaknath meat may be considered as a potential dietary source of functional biomolecules for human beings. The information on the college chicken HCD content is more than relevant currently as carnosine has anti-viral properties^xiv and is a promising nutrient for prevention, and support during the COVID infection^ane. The data presented in this report volition be useful for designing future research on the health benefits of black chicken meat.

Decision

Indian Kadaknath craven meat may exist categorized as a functional food for optimizing human being growth, development, and health as it is enriched in bioactive dipeptide carnosine and a nutritionally of import source of physiologically meaning nutrients anserine, and creatine. It has practiced antioxidant and antiglycation capacity. Information on amend nutritional quality will enhance the research targeting the commercial potential of its meat in the fields of functional foods, cosmeceuticals, and nutraceuticals. This value addition can promote Kadaknath lawn poultry farming leading to women empowerment and socio-economic upliftment in rural India. Findings contribute towards enhancing public awareness on the health benefits of black chicken meat and further scientific investigations.

Materials and methods

Ideals argument

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Veterinary Higher, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur vide order number 4040 dated 18.12.2018. No in vivo experiment was conducted. Birds were sacrificed and meat samples were collected as per the guidelines and regulations of the ethics commission in accordance with Arrive guidelines (https://arriveguidelines.org).

Birds and sample preparation

20 male chickens each, of indigenous Kadaknath breed and commercial Cobb 400 broiler (Cobb) were reared at the poultry farm of College of Veterinarian Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Jabalpur (23° x′ 1.09" North 79° 57′ 0.22" Due east), Republic of india. The experimental pattern was approved past the Ethics Commission of the Veterinary College, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur (O No. 4040/ Dean/ Vety/ 2018 dated 18.12.2018). A deep litter system was followed for rearing the birds in the open-sided poultry house under identical weather condition following standard and uniform management regimen. Birds were sacrificed at the historic period of marketing- 8 weeks for Cobb and xx weeks for Kadaknath following standard scientific procedures equally per the guidelines of the ethics committee. The breast and thigh meat were trimmed of visible fat and connective tissue, cut into small-scale pieces and minced in a domestic meat blender (Panasonic MK-SW200, Republic of india) for 30 due south. Minced samples were stored at − 80 °C in PE plastic numberless wrapped with an aluminum sheet until use. Finely chopped breast and thigh meat samples of each bird were besides preserved simultaneously in the RNALater^® (Ambion Inc., Austin, USA) filled cryovials. It was so stored overnight at 4 °C followed by storage at − 80 °C till further processing for RNA isolation.

For the preparation of meat extract, ii g meat was homogenized in 20 mL of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.iv) in an ice bath using a homogenizer (Benchmark Scientific D1000, USA). The homogenate was extracted in dark at 4 °C for 20 min followed past centrifugation at 10,000×g for xv min at iv °C. The solid residue was discarded and the aliquots of supernatant were stored at − xx °C till further use.

Measurement of HCDs (carnosine and anserine) and creatine contents

The quantity of di-peptides (anserine and carnosine) and creatine were adamant in both the breast and the thigh tissue of the Kadaknath (n = xx) and Cobb (northward = 20) following the slightly modified method of Mora et al.⁶². Briefly, 0.5 g craven meat (breast or thigh) was homogenized (3000×k) with 0.1 Northward HCl (3 mL) for 1 min. The supernatant obtained after centrifugation at 10,000g for 20 min at 4 °C was filtered through Whatman No. iv filter paper. Deproteinization of the above supernatant (250 µL) was accomplished by mixing it with acetonitrile (750 µL) and leaving it undisturbed for 20 min at 4 °C. Next, the mixture was centrifuged for ten min (ten,000×thou) at four °C and filtered through a 0.22 µm membrane filter (Millipore, Sigma, St. Louis, MO, Us) to obtain the sample for analysis using high-operation liquid chromatography (HPLC). Twenty microliters of each sample were injected into an HPLC system (1260 Infinity; Agilent Technologies, USA) equipped with the Zic-HILIC silica column (4.6 × 150 mm, three μm; Waters, Milford, MA, Usa). The column temperature was kept at 35 °C. The mobile phases consisted of solvent A (pH 7, 0.65 mM ammonium acetate in water:acetonitrile, 25:75, five/v) and solvent B (pH 6.8, iv.55 mM ammonium acetate in water:acetonitrile, lxx:xxx, v/v). The menstruum rate was one.2 mL/min for viii min with a linear gradient (0% to 100%) from solvent A to B. A diode assortment detector was used at 214 nm to measure HCDs and creatine contents. Standard curves for carnosine, anserine, and creatine were fatigued using the corresponding standards (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, U.s.). A regression equation was obtained using the area under the bend (AUC) of generated peaks. Carnosine, anserine, and creatine content was quantified by plotting the AUC of each sample against its standard curve data and reported as mg/ g of wet tissue weight.

Relative mRNA affluence analyses using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR)

Total RNA was extracted from the breast tissue of Kadaknath (n = twenty) and Cobb (n = 20), and thigh tissue of Kadaknath craven (n = 20) using TriReagent (Sigma-Aldrich). Column purification of the isolated RNA was washed with the Qiagen RNeasy kit (True cat. No. 74004) following the manufacturer's instructions. RNA concentration and quality were estimated using a Nanodrop ND-chiliad spectrophotometer (Thermo, Scientific, Waltham, MA). The samples were considered for downstream analysis if A260/A280 and A260/A230 ratios were not less than ii.0.

Purified RNA from each sample (2 μg) was opposite transcribed to the cDNA with the SuperScript® 3 Kickoff-Strand Synthesis Arrangement (Catalog number: 18080051; ThermoFisher Scientific) following the manufacturer'south instructions. SYBR Light-green I chemistry was used to guess the differential expression of genes related to the carnosine accumulation⁴³ namely CARNS1 (Carnosine synthase 1), CNDP1 (Carnosine dipeptidase 1) and (Carnosine dipeptidase 2), and β-alanine transporters—SLC6A6 (Solute carrier family 6, fellow member half dozen), and SLC6A14 (Solute carrier family half-dozen, member xiv), and SLC36A1 (Solute carrier family 36, member 1) on real-time PCR organization (LightCycler® 480 Instrument 2, Roche Life Science, Germany). Primers (Table 3) were synthesized from Integrated Dna Technologies, USA. Four replicates were performed for each sample and amplifications were performed in triplicates in a 10 μL reaction volume containing two μL of the cDNA, 5 μL of 2X Ability SYBR® Green Reagent (Applied Biosystems, Life Technologies), 0.3 μL each of forrad and reverse primer (concentrations betwixt 150 and 300 nM), and nuclease-free h2o to adjust the book at x μL. Cycling conditions were 5 min at 95 °C, followed by 45 cycles of 10 s at 95 °C, xxx s at sixty °C, and 10 south at 72 °C. To confirm the specificity of all individual amplification reactions, a dissociation curve analysis was included at the terminate of the distension: 95 °C for 5 s, 60 °C for i min, 95 °C for 15 s and 60 °C for 1 min. One single pinnacle of the target gene quantitative melting curve indicated the absence of nonspecific distension and primer dimer formation in the amplification process. β actin was used every bit the reference factor and the relative expression of each gene was quantified (fold modify) using the 2^−ΔΔCt method⁶³.

Table iii Characteristics of the primers used in quantitative RT-PCR analysis of Cobb 400 and Kadaknath chicken meat.

Total size table

Antiglycation capacity interpretation past measurement of avant-garde glycation end products (AGEs)

In vitro antiglycation capacity of the breast and thigh meat of Kadaknath chicken (northward = 20) was compared with the corresponding activity in Cobb broiler (n = 20) by testing the ability of the extracts to inhibit the methylglyoxal mediated evolution of bovine serum albumin (BSA) fluorescence. The method of Abdelkader et al.⁶⁴ was followed, with slight modifications. BSA and methylglyoxal (Sigma Aldrich, USA) were dissolved in phosphate buffer (l mM, pH 7.4) to a concentration of fifty mg/mL and 3 mM, respectively. An equal volume (500 μL) of methylglyoxal solution and tissue extract prepared in the same phosphate buffer was mixed in 10 mL spiral-capped glass tubes with 0.02% Sodium azide, serving as an antimicrobial amanuensis. The mixture was incubated for 2 h at 37 °C. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) (500 μL; fifty mg/mL) was added to each tube and the mixture was again incubated at 37 °C for 72 h in darkness. The reaction was terminated by adding 50 µL of 100% (due west/5) trichloroacetic acrid (TCA) followed by centrifugation (12,000×g) for 4 min at 4 °C. The pellet was done with 50 µL of chilled TCA (5%). The pellet containing AGEs was dissolved in 100 μL PBS. The plates were examined for the development of specific fluorescence at 370, and 440 nm (excitation and emission, respectively) using the microplate reader (Space F200 Pro, Tecan Republic of austria GmbH, Republic of austria). Phosphate buffer was used as a blank. Aminoguanidine (30 mM) and carnosine (10 mM) were used as the standard glycating agents. Triplicate samples were run for each ready, and the percent inhibition of AGEs germination by meat extracts was calculated using the following equation (FI: fluorescence intensity).

% Inhibition = [1 − (FI of excerpt/ FI of control)] × 100.

Antioxidant activity

Oxygen radical absorbance capacity-fluorescein (ORAC) assay was carried out using the ab233473 ORAC assay kit (Abcam, United kingdom) following the manufacturer's instructions. Briefly, 25 μL of the meat extract was added to the dissimilar wells of 96-well microplate. Fluorescein solution (150 μL, 1X) was added to each well, thoroughly mixed and the plate was incubated for thirty min at 37 °C. After incubation 25 μL of the free radical initiator solution was added, thoroughly mixed and the microplate was immediately placed in the microplate reader (Model: Infinite F200 Pro, Tecan Republic of austria GmbH, Republic of austria). The decay in fluorescence was recorded every minute for lx min with an excitation wavelength of 300 nm and emission at 380 nm. A blank using phosphate buffer instead of the extract and seven dilutions of Trolox (6-hydroxy-2,5,vii,eight–tetramethylchroman-two-carboxylic acrid) as the antioxidant standard (2.5–fifty µM) were as well carried out in each analysis. Three contained assays were performed for each sample. The area nether the curve (AUC) for each sample and standard was calculated using the terminal analysis values and the linear regression:

$$\frac{AUC }{RFU0}=one+\frac{RFU1}{RFU0}+\frac{RFU2}{RFU0}+\frac{RFU3}{RFU0}+\cdots +\frac{RFU59}{RFU0}+\frac{RFU60}{RFU0}$$

where: RFU0 = Relative fluorescence value of time signal nothing, RFUx = Relative Fluorescence value of fourth dimension (minutes) points. The net AUC was obtained by subtracting the AUC of the bare from the AUC of each sample and standard as:

$${\text{Net AUC}}={\rm AUC}\left({\rm Antioxidant} \right)-{\rm AUC}\left({\rm Blank} \right).$$

The Trolox standard curve was prepared by plotting the internet AUC on (Y-centrality) against the concentration on X-axis. The regression equation between net AUC and antioxidant concentration was calculated. The slope of the equation was used to summate the µM Trolox Equivalents (TE) of the unknown sample (ORAC value) expressed equally µM TE/ g tissue, the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC).

Statistical analyses

Data analyses for the quantification of carnosine, anserine, and creatine and the measurement of antioxidant and antiglycation potential were performed past Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version, 10.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, U.s.). The results of triplicate contained measurements were analyzed using ane-manner analysis of variance and hateful comparisons were conducted using Duncans' post hoc or t test. Statistical significance was set up at 95% confidence level (P < 0.05). Values were shown as means and standard error (SE). mRNA expression of enzymes and transporters related to carnosine aggregating inside the jail cell was evaluated in chest and thigh tissue using two-way ANOVA followed by Bonferronis' mail hoc test using the Graphpad Prism viii.0 software parcel (https://www.graphpad.com/scientific-software/prism/).

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the electric current study are available from the corresponding writer on logical request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to the Directors of ICAR-National Bureau of Brute Genetic Resources and ICAR-National Dairy Inquiry Found, Karnal for providing logistics for the research work. Special cheers are due to the Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur for permitting the utilize of the poultry subcontract facility. The technical help received from farm staff is duly acknowledged.

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Authors and Affiliations

ICAR-National Agency of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal, 132 001, India

Rekha Sharma, Renuka Sehrawat, Sonika Ahlawat, A. G. Mishra & 1000. S. Tantia
ICAR- National Dairy Inquiry Institute, Karnal, 132 001, India

Vivek Sharma & Alka Parmar
Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinarian Science University, Jabalpur, 482001, Bharat

M. S. Thakur

Contributions

R.Sh. conceptualized the research problem, executed the project, and wrote the manuscript, R.Se. performed biochemical assay, Southward.A. generated the molecular information, V.Southward. and A.P. quantified functional biomolecules, M.S.T. did poultry management, A.Yard.M. and M.S.T. analyzed the data. All the authors read and approved the last manuscript.

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Correspondence to Rekha Sharma.

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Sharma, R., Sehrawat, R., Ahlawat, S. et al. An attempt to valorize the just black meat chicken breed of India by delineating superior functional attributes of its meat. Sci Rep 12, 3555 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-07575-9

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Received: 17 July 2021
Accepted: 21 February 2022
Published: 03 March 2022
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-07575-9

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